Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of intense scientific and industrial growth. It is often called the Technological Revolution. This era began around 1870 and lasted until the start of World War I in 1914. It followed the First Industrial Revolution, which focused on steam and water power. The second phase moved toward advanced science, mass production, and standardization. This era transformed how goods were made and how people lived. It primarily occurred in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States. However, it also spread to France, Italy, Japan, and the Low Countries.

Many different technologies worked together during this time. Some historians call this period "The Age of Synergy." This means that one invention often helped another succeed. For example, the growth of railroads relied on coal and steel. Railroads used coal to power their steam locomotives. In turn, railroads provided a way to transport coal and steel cheaply. This cycle led to massive infrastructure growth. In the 1880s, the United States laid 75,000 miles of track. This was the largest amount of railroad track ever laid in history.

Steel production changed significantly through new chemical and mechanical processes. Before this, making steel was slow and expensive. Sir Henry Bessemer invented the Bessemer process to solve this. He blew air through molten pig iron to remove impurities through oxidation. This method increased the speed and scale of steel production. Later, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas and Percy Gilchrist developed a way to remove phosphorus. This allowed more types of iron ore to be used for steel. This was very important for factories in Belgium and Germany.

Another major method was the Siemens–Martin process. It used an open-hearth furnace to melt steel. This process was easier to control than the Bessemer method. It also allowed factories to melt and recycle scrap steel. This helped lower the cost of production even further. By the early 20th century, this became the leading way to make steel. The availability of cheap steel changed the physical world. It allowed for the construction of much larger bridges and ships. It also made the creation of skyscrapers possible.

Railroads also benefited from the shift from iron to steel. Earlier rails were made of wrought iron, which was soft. Iron rails could not support very heavy locomotives. They often suffered damage from the force of the trains. In 1857, Robert Forester Musket created the first durable steel rails. Steel rails lasted over ten times longer than iron rails. Because they were stronger, they could be made in longer lengths. This allowed for heavier trains and more productive shipping.

Electricity was perhaps the most transformative discovery of the era. The scientific foundation for electricity came from Michael Faraday. He studied electromagnetic fields and created devices that could rotate using electricity. These inventions led to the practical use of electric power. In 1879, Joseph Swan created the first feasible incandescent light bulb. He used it to light a street in Newcastle, England. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in London became the first public building lit entirely by electricity.

As technology advanced, new systems for communication and power emerged. The telegraph and telephone allowed ideas to move faster than ever before. Large central power plants opened in London and New York City. These plants distributed electricity to homes and industries. This period also saw the rise of the internal combustion engine. This engine used petroleum to power new machines and vehicles. The era ended as the world entered the 20th century. Many of these technologies led directly into the modern Information Age.