Predestination

Predestination is a significant theological doctrine found in many religious traditions. It is the belief that all events are willed by God. Most often, this concept refers to the eventual fate of an individual soul. This idea creates a complex paradox regarding human free will. If God possesses omniscience, or total knowledge, can humans still make independent choices? This tension is sometimes described as religious determinism or theological determinism.

Different historical groups have proposed various mechanisms to explain this relationship. In the pre-Christian period, the Book of Enoch suggested a deterministic worldview mixed with dualism. The Book of Jubilees attempted to harmonize determinism with free will. In contrast, the author Ben Sira affirmed that God allows humans to choose between good and bad. Some Jewish groups, such as the Essenes, may have believed in predestination. However, scholars like N. T. Wright suggest these debates might have focused on God's work to liberate Israel. This highlights how different groups interpreted the intersection of divine action and human agency.

Early Christian thinkers during the Patristic period developed several distinct systems of thought. Origen, writing in the third century, tied predestination to God's foreknowledge of individual merits. He believed God's providence extended to every person based on their actions. The Valentinus group proposed a system based on innate spiritual natures. They believed humans were born into one of three natures. In this view, a person with a bad nature could not be saved. Conversely, those with a good nature were destined for salvation because of their inclination toward good.

Augustine of Hippo, a major figure in the fourth and fifth centuries, shifted the focus toward divine grace. He initially believed predestination was based on God's foreknowledge of human belief. Later, Augustine argued that God's grace is what causes the act of faith itself. This sparked intense debates over whether his views implied double predestination. Double predestination is the idea that God chooses some for salvation and others for damnation. While some scholars affirm Augustine held this view, many Catholic scholars deny it. This tension led various church councils to condemn certain extreme interpretations of predestination.

During the Middle Ages, theologians continued to refine these complex ideas. In the ninth century, the monk Gottschalk of Orbais argued for double predestination. Although he was condemned by several synods, his views remained popular. In the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas offered a different perspective. He taught that God predestines certain people to the beatific vision based on His own goodness. Aquinas argued that God directly wills good but only permits evil. He maintained that humans remain free in their choices and are responsible for their own sins.

The Reformation period brought even more specific doctrines to the forefront. John Calvin was a central figure who rejected the idea that God merely permits evil. He taught that God actively decrees the damnation of sinners. However, Calvin believed the salvation of the saved was caused solely by God. He viewed the reason for damnation as a mystery, though he noted it was caused by human sin. Huldrych Zwingli also held similar views regarding double predestination. These ideas became foundational to the branch of Christianity known as Calvinism.

Today, various religious branches maintain unique interpretations of these concepts. Eastern Orthodoxy emphasizes a synergy between human effort and divine grace. Roman Catholicism teaches that God's predestination works in harmony with human responses. They specifically reject the idea that God predestines anyone to sin. Protestant traditions show significant variety in their stances. Lutheranism affirms unconditional election to salvation but denies predestination to damnation. Arminianism, another Protestant view, links election to foreseen human faith. Finally, the LDS Church rejects predestination in favor of foreordination, which emphasizes moral agency.