Normative ethics

Normative ethics is a major branch of philosophical ethics. It investigates how people ought to act in a moral sense. This field seeks to establish standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions. It is distinct from metaethics, which studies the meaning of moral language. Metaethics also looks at the metaphysics of moral facts. Normative ethics is also different from applied ethics. Applied ethics focuses on specific issues like whether abortion is acceptable. Normative ethics is more concerned with the question of what one ought to be. It is also distinct from descriptive ethics. Descriptive ethics is an empirical investigation into what people actually believe. Because it provides directions, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive ethics. However, some versions of moral realism suggest moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive.

Most traditional moral theories rely on overarching principles. These principles help people resolve difficult moral decisions. There are three main competing views on how to answer moral questions. These are virtue ethics, deontological ethics, and consequentialism. Some thinkers also propose hybrid positions. These positions combine elements from different theories. These frameworks help us understand what gives an action its ethical force. They provide different ways to judge a person's conduct or a specific rule.

Virtue ethics is one of these primary frameworks. It focuses on the inherent character of a person. It looks at who a person is rather than specific actions. Aristotle was a major advocate for this view. Later, Saint Thomas Aquinas supported some aspects of it. There has been a significant revival of virtue ethics since the 1950s. Philosophers like G. E. M. Anscombe and Philippa Foot contributed to this revival. Other important figures include Alasdair MacIntyre and Rosalind Hursthouse.

Deontological ethics offers a different approach. This view argues that decisions should consider duties and rights. One famous theory is Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative. This roots morality in the rational capacity of humans. It asserts that certain moral laws are inviolable. Another example is the contractualism of John Rawls. Rawls suggested we should act as if we were behind a "veil of ignorance." This means acting as we would agree to if we were unbiased. Natural rights theories are also deontological. Thinkers like John Locke and Robert Nozick held that humans have absolute, natural rights.

Consequentialism is the third major view. It argues that the morality of an action depends on its outcome. The term "consequentialism" was coined by G. E. M. Anscombe in 1958. Before this, utilitarianism was the generic term for these theories. Utilitarianism holds that right actions lead to the most happiness for the greatest number. Other versions exist, such as Mohist consequentialism. This theory focuses on state welfare through order and wealth. There is also welfarism, which focuses on economic well-being. Preference utilitarianism seeks the most overall preference satisfaction. Other types include intellectualism, which promotes knowledge, and situational ethics, which looks at context.

Other ethical theories provide even more specialized perspectives. Social contract theories involve voluntary pacts between individuals or collectives. These theories suggest we should obey the clauses of such contracts. The ethics of care was founded by feminist theorists like Carol Gilligan. This view argues that morality arises from empathy and compassion. It emphasizes the importance of interdependence and relationships. Pragmatic ethics is harder to classify. It suggests moral correctness evolves socially over many lifetimes. Founders of pragmatism include Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Role ethics is another approach based on family roles.

Philosophers also debate the "binding force" of morality. This is the question of why people feel they must act morally. Some wonder if the word "ought" implies a special power. G. E. M. Anscombe worried that "ought" had become a word of mere mesmeric force. Philippa Foot argued that morality has no special binding force. She suggested people only act morally when motivated by other factors. For example, morality cannot stop someone from stealing if they have no other motivation.

Without feelings like shame or love, a person might act immorally without remorse.

John Stuart Mill explored how we motivate moral behavior. He believed humans use conscience to bridge reason and feeling. Mill argued that a good moral system appeals to human nature. He pointed to the social feelings of mankind as a foundation. This is the desire to be in unity with other creatures. He believed these feelings become stronger through civilization. Mill also noted that external pressures, like wanting to please others, influence us. This helps ensure people develop a conscience. Understanding these motivations helps us see how ethics functions in real life.