Native American religions

Native American religions encompass the diverse spiritual practices of Indigenous peoples across the Americas.

These traditions are not a single, uniform system. Instead, they vary widely based on the unique histories of individual nations, tribes, and bands. Early European explorers noted that even small bands often maintained distinct religious practices. These belief systems can be categorized by their theological structures. Some are monotheistic, focusing on one god. Others are polytheistic, involving many deities. Some groups follow henotheism, polytheism, animism, or shamanism. Some may even practice pantheism, the belief that the divine is in everything.

Traditional knowledge is usually preserved through oral traditions. This includes myths, oral histories, stories, allegories, and core principles.

Many of these religions center on a supernatural world of spirits and wonders.

For example, the Algonquian people recognize the manitou. The Lakota people refer to the wakan. Many groups also hold beliefs in a Great Spirit or a Fifth World. A central cultic symbol in many Northern American rites is the World Tree, also called a world pole or pillar. Before Christian influence, many religions recognized a High God. This figure is often seen as a supreme Creator and Teacher. In South America, the Inca recognized the god Viracocha. In North America, the Pawnee recognized the god Tirawa, a sky deity representing all spiritual beings.

Throughout history, Native American spirituality has undergone various revitalization movements. These movements are often divided into two distinct types: fundamentalist and syncretic reform. Fundamentalist movements generally favor a return to traditional ways. They often reject changes brought by modern states. Examples include the Pueblo Revolt in the 1680s and the Shawnee Prophet Movement from 1805 to 1811. The Ghost Dance movements of 1869 and 1889 are also fundamentalist examples. In contrast, syncretic reform movements combine elements of different faiths. The Yaqui Religion has existed since 1500. The Longhouse Religion began in 1797. The Native American Church emerged in the 1800s and continues today.

One notable reform movement is the Washat Dreamers Religion in the Pacific Northwest.

It was founded by Smohalla, a member of the Coast Salish, around 1850. Smohalla claimed to receive visions of the spirit world through dreams. He preached a return to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. He urged his followers to avoid the influences of colonizers. This religion combined Christian elements with Native beliefs. For instance, it held Sunday as a holy day. However, it rejected the Christian work ethic of plowing the land. The Waashat Dance is a key part of this tradition. It involves seven drummers and a salmon feast.

The Ghost Dance movement provides another significant example of religious revitalization.

It began as a local ceremony in Nevada by the Paiute prophet Wodziwob. However, it gained widespread popularity through Wovoka, a Northern Paiute man. Wovoka claimed he visited the Supreme Being during a fever in 1889. He predicted that the world would be restored to a pure state. He believed the dead would return to live eternally without suffering. This movement was created during a time of immense hardship for Native Americans. It sought to help them survive catastrophes and drive colonists from their lands.

Native American spiritual practices faced intense suppression from European and American institutions. Starting in the 1600s, European Christians sought to convert Indigenous tribes. After the United States gained independence, the government continued these efforts. Agencies and religious organizations often worked together for forcible conversion. In the 1890s, the government used violence to stop Ghost Dance and Sun Dance practitioners. In Canada, the prohibition against the Sun Dance ceremony lasted until 1951. Later, the U.S. government used laws to ban feasts and sweat lodges. This persecution continued until the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed in 1978.

A devastating method of suppression was the American Indian boarding school system.

These were government-funded and church-operated schools. Native children were removed from their families and placed in these institutions. They were forced to learn European Christian beliefs and the English language. They were often forbidden from speaking their own languages or practicing their culture. This system of oppression continued through the 1970s. Today, many Native Americans show a renewed interest in their traditions. While some scholars estimate only 9,000 members in traditional religions, many leaders believe this is too low. Many people practice in secret or attend both traditional and Christian services.