Karakorum

Karakorum was the central capital of the Mongol Empire from 1235 to 1260. It also served as the capital for the Northern Yuan dynasty during the late 14th and 15th centuries.

Located in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province in modern Mongolia, the city lies in the Orkhon Valley. This valley is part of a major World Heritage Site. The area has a very long history of human activity. It was once a center for the Xiongnu, Göktürk, and Uyghur empires. It is also recognized as one of the oldest farming regions in Mongolia.

Many geographic factors made this site an ideal location for a capital. During the Medieval Warm Period, the climate was warmer and more moist than it is today. This provided abundant grass for grazing livestock. The Orkhon River flows north-south, which is unusual for a region where most rivers run east-west. This helped facilitate riverine travel and allowed for better control over natural trade networks. Choosing this site also held deep symbolic importance. It expressed Mongol control over the populations that lived in the region before them.

The development of the city occurred in several distinct stages. Genghis Khan first used the area to rally his troops in 1218 or 1219. At that time, it was likely just a town made of yurts. The formal foundation of the city is usually dated to 1220. However, it did not become a permanent urban center until the reign of Ögedei Khan. After defeating the Jin empire, Ögedei ordered the construction of city walls and a fixed palace in 1235.

This palace was called the Tumen Amgalan Ord, or the Palace of Myriad Peace. It was completed in just one year.

Under the rule of Ögedei and his successors, Karakorum became a major hub for world politics. Ögedei encouraged the empire's elite to build houses near his palace to centralize his power. Later, Möngke Khan enlarged the palace and completed a great stupa temple.

One of the most famous objects in the city was the Silver Tree of Karakorum. This was a large sculpture made of silver and other precious metals. It stood in the middle of a courtyard and featured branches that reached into the palace building. The tree featured silver fruit and four golden serpents braided around its trunk. At the top sat a trumpet angel that functioned as an automaton. When the khan wanted to serve drinks, the mechanical angel would sound a horn. This caused the serpents to gush alcoholic beverages into a large silver basin.

A Flemish missionary named William of Rubruck visited the city in 1254. His detailed accounts provide a window into the city's cosmopolitan nature. He described a walled city with four gates facing the four cardinal directions. The city was divided into quarters for different groups, such as the "Saracenes" and the "Cathai."

Karakorum was remarkably religiously tolerant. Rubruck noted the presence of twelve pagan temples, two mosques, and a Nestorian church.

This diversity made the city a unique center of culture and faith.

The city's status changed after the Mongol Empire dissolved in 1260. Khubilai Khan moved the capital of the Yuan Empire to Dadu, which is present-day Beijing. Karakorum was reduced to a provincial administrative center by 1271. The city suffered through several conflicts, including the Toluid Civil War. In 1260, Khubilai disrupted the local grain supply. In 1277, a leader named Kaidu took the city, though Yuan troops ousted him the following year. Between 1298 and 1299, Prince Ulus Buqa looted the city's markets and grain storehouses. The city saw a brief era of prosperity in the early 14th century with new public buildings and renewed stupa temples. However, the Ming army occupied and razed the city in 1372 and 1380.

Modern archaeologists have worked hard to uncover the secrets of the ruins. The exact location of Karakorum was a subject of debate for many years. In 1889, Nikolai Yadrintsev conclusively identified the site. Since then, many excavations have revealed incredible details about daily life.

Archaeologists have found paved roads, adobe buildings, and floor heating systems. They have also discovered evidence of manufacturing for copper, gold, silver, and iron.

Finds include ceramics, glass, jewels, and coins from both China and Central Asia. These artifacts show that Karakorum was a highly advanced and connected center of trade and industry.