Hunter-gatherer

Long ago, people lived in small groups.

For most of human history, people lived as hunter-gatherers. This means they found food by gathering plants or hunting animals.

This way of life began about 1.8 million years ago. Many groups were nomadic. This means they moved from place to place to find food. They lived in small groups of a few dozen people.

These groups were often equal. They did not have one single leader. Instead, people took turns leading based on the task. Sharing food was very important to them. This helped everyone in the group stay well.

In many groups, women also helped with hunting. Some studies show women hunted small animals. Other finds show women hunted very large animals too.

As time passed, farming began. People started to grow crops and keep animals. This led to permanent homes and new ways of living. Many hunter-gatherer groups moved to join these farming groups. However, some groups like the San still live this way today.

A hunter-gatherer is a person who lives by finding food in nature. They get most of their food by gathering plants or hunting animals. This way of life is also called foraging. It is a way of living that many different animals use to survive. Most human history was spent this way. For a very long time, it was the main way humans lived on Earth.

These groups usually live in small communities. A group might only have a few dozen people in it. Most hunter-gatherer groups are nomadic or semi-nomadic. This means they move from place to place to find food. They do not stay in one spot for a long time. This is different from farmers who stay in one place to grow crops.

This way of life is very old. It began about 1.8 million years ago with a human species called Homo erectus. Later, Homo sapiens also used this method. Some early humans lived in the cold mammoth steppes of Siberia. They hunted huge animals like mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses. Other groups lived in forests and gathered nuts, fruits, and eggs.

Social life in these groups is often egalitarian. This means people try to be equal and share things. They often do not have one permanent leader. Instead, different people take charge depending on the job. Sharing food and goods is a very important rule. Some groups, like the San in southern Africa, use sharing to keep things fair.

Many people think only men hunted big animals. However, new research shows that women hunted too. In some groups, women hunted small animals like lizards. In other places, women helped track large animals. A study in Peru found female hunters from 9,000 years ago. Some studies suggest women hunted in 79 percent of these societies. Today, a few groups like the Pumé and Sentinelese still live this way.

A hunter-gatherer, often called a forager, is a person living in a community that obtains most food from local natural sources. This lifestyle involves gathering wild plants and hunting animals for sustenance. Foraging is a common survival strategy for many omnivorous vertebrates. Unlike sedentary agricultural societies, hunter-gatherers do not rely on domesticated animals or cultivated crops. Instead, they move through the landscape to find what nature provides. This method of survival was humanity's most enduring competitive adaptation. It occupied at least 90 percent of human history.

The mechanics of foraging depend heavily on the local ecology and available resources. Early humans, such as Homo erectus, may have used scavenging to survive. Scavenging involves using carcasses left by predators or animals that died naturally. In forest environments, humans gathered seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits. As groups specialized, they developed specific tools for different tasks. For example, they created fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. This specialization allowed them to focus on specific types of game or aquatic resources.

Hunter-gatherer groups are often nomadic or semi-nomadic. This means they move frequently to follow food sources. Most groups consist of a few dozen people organized into families. However, some environments are so rich that groups can become semi-sedentary. The Osipovka culture lived in fish-rich areas 14,000 to 10,300 years ago. They were able to stay in one place all year. The Chumash people achieved a high population density of 21.6 persons per square mile.

History shows that these groups spread across the entire globe. During the Late Pleistocene, modern humans moved out of Africa. They reached Australia and the Americas, often coinciding with the extinction of megafauna. In the mammoth steppes of Siberia, ancient North Eurasians hunted mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses. The settlement of the Americas began when people crossed the Beringia land bridge. Eventually, the invention of agriculture changed the world. Farming and pastoralist groups often displaced or conquered hunter-gatherers.

Socially, most hunter-gatherer societies are characterized as egalitarian. This means they emphasize sharing and resist strict social hierarchies. The San people of southern Africa use customs to discourage hoarding. They encourage economic equality through the sharing of food and goods. Most groups do not have permanent leaders. Instead, different individuals take initiative based on the specific task at hand. This contrasts with the hierarchies seen in chimpanzee societies. Some scholars believe this resistance to domination helped drive the evolution of human language and social organization.

Recent research has also changed our understanding of gender roles. It was once assumed that men hunted big game while women gathered. However, studies show that women participated in hunting quite often. In the Ju/'hoansi people, women help track quarry. In the Australian Martu, both genders hunt but use different styles. A 2020 study of burials in Peru found that many female hunters were buried with hunting tools. One study suggests women hunted in 79 percent of hunter-gatherer societies. This division of labor may have given Homo sapiens an advantage over Neanderthals.

Life for hunter-gatherers involved specific challenges and rhythms. Some researchers argue they lived in an "affluent" state because they worked fewer hours. One study found foragers worked about 6.5 hours a day. This is less than the 8.8 hours averaged by industrial workers. However, other scholars note high infant mortality and frequent disease. Estimates suggest about 57 percent of hunter-gatherers reach age 15. Of those, 64 percent live to age 45. Most deaths were caused by disease, while 20 percent resulted from violence or accidents.