Hundred Years' War

The Hundred Years' War was a massive series of conflicts between the kingdoms of England and France. It lasted for 116 years, spanning from 1337 to 1453. This was not one continuous battle, but rather an intermittent struggle. It included many periods of active fighting separated by long truces. The war was also a civil war within France itself. It involved five generations of kings from two rival dynasties. These leaders fought for control over the throne of France. At the time, France was the wealthiest and most populous kingdom in Western Europe.

The conflict grew from deep-seated feudal disputes over land and power. For centuries, English monarchs held territories within France, such as the Duchy of Aquitaine. This made the English kings vassals to the French kings. Tensions rose when the direct male line of the Capetian dynasty ended. In 1328, King Charles IV of France died without a son or brother. This created a major succession crisis. Edward III of England was the nephew of Charles IV. He claimed the throne through his mother, Isabella. However, French nobility rejected this claim. They used Salic law to argue that women could not transmit rights to the throne. They instead crowned Philip, Count of Valois, as Philip VI.

Historians divide the war into three distinct phases. The first phase is the Edwardian War, which lasted from 1337 to 1360. During this stage, English forces saw major successes. They won famous battles at Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356. In the second phase, known as the Caroline War (1369–1389), the French fought to reclaim territory. Under King Charles V and the leader Bertrand du Guesclin, France took back most lost lands. The third phase is the Lancastrian War, from 1415 to 1453. This period began with English victories at Agincourt and Verneuil. However, the French eventually regained control of the kingdom.

External factors frequently interrupted the fighting. The most devastating was the Black Death, a deadly plague that spread between 1347 and 1351. This pandemic caused catastrophic damage across Europe. In France, the plague killed between 6 and 12 million people. This represented 30% to 60% of the French population. England also suffered, losing roughly 2 to 3 million people. The massive loss of life caused economic collapse and labor shortages. It also led to widespread social dislocation and unrest in both kingdoms.

During the final phase, several key events shifted the momentum. King Henry V of England seized an opportunity during a French civil war. This conflict was between the Armagnac and Burgundian factions. English victories at Agincourt raised hopes of total conquest. However, the emergence of Joan of Arc changed the course of history. She helped boost French morale during the Siege of Orléans in 1429. Although she was later captured and executed, her influence was significant. Following her, the French won decisive battles at Patay, Formigny, and Castillon. These victories allowed the Valois dynasty to secure the throne.

The war fundamentally changed how nations fought. Before this era, feudal armies relied heavily on aristocratic knights on horseback. By the end of the war, professional standing armies had emerged. New military technologies and tactics became standard. Artillery, including small hand-held cannons, played a crucial role. This shift meant that military power was no longer just for the nobility. The rise of these technologies helped create the first professional armies in Western Europe since the Roman Empire.

The long-term significance of the war is seen in the rise of nationalism. The struggle helped create stronger national identities in both England and France. Both kingdoms became more centralized and eventually emerged as global powers. For England, the loss of continental lands led to financial insolvency. This dissatisfaction among nobles helped trigger the Wars of the Roses. For France, the victory consolidated the power of the monarchy. The war remains the longest military conflict in European history. It transformed the political and social structures of the entire continent.