Deportation

Deportation is the act of a state expelling a person or a group of people from its sovereign territory. While the term is used frequently, its exact meaning can change based on the specific legal context or location. Some scholars distinguish between expulsion and deportation. In international law, expulsion often refers to the legal order to leave a territory. Deportation may refer to the actual implementation of that order when a person does not leave voluntarily. In the field of migration, the International Organization for Migration often treats these terms as synonyms. A person who undergoes this process is known as a deportee.

There are different ways to categorize these movements of people. Some definitions separate the removal of legal immigrants, which they call expulsion, from the removal of illegal immigrants, called deportation. Another distinction involves the scale of the action. Collective expulsion occurs when a state compels a group of non-nationals to leave. This is different from individual cases where each person is examined separately. International law prohibits collective expulsion, which is also known as expulsion en masse. This can involve moving entire ethnic groups regardless of their specific nationality.

History shows that forced movement has been practiced since ancient times. In Mesopotamia, records document various instances of people being moved. The Neo-Assyrian Empire moved populations following the fall of Israel. Later, the Neo-Babylonian Empire deported much of the Judean population in 597 BC and 587 BC. The Achaemenid Empire also used deportation as a policy to manage rebellious groups. For example, the ruler Darius I moved several groups, including Egyptians and Carians, to different regions. These actions were often used to maintain control over conquered territories.

The Sasanian Empire utilized deportation extensively, particularly during conflicts with the Roman Empire. Following the Battle of Edessa, Roman prisoners were moved to regions like Persis. The Sasanians even established new cities, such as Bishapur and Gundeshapur, to house these deportees. They also provided agricultural land to the people being moved. These migrations had significant cultural effects, such as helping to spread Christianity within the Sasanian Empire. In other eras, such as during the reign of Khosrau I, massive numbers of people were moved. One source records that as many as 292,000 deportees were involved in these campaigns.

During the Middle Ages, religious differences often drove the movement of people. The Almoravids, for example, deported Christians from Spain to Morocco during several periods in the 1100s. As the Age of Discovery began, states started sending people to overseas colonies. Starting in 1717, Britain deported approximately 40,000 religious objectors and criminals to America. After Britain lost control of those American territories, they turned to Australia. Between 1787 and 1855, Britain transported more than 160,000 people to Australian colonies. In these cases, the people were often sold to plantation owners to work for the duration of their sentences.

In the late 19th century, modern immigration controls began to emerge globally. The United States started designating certain immigrants as "desired" or "undesired," which created the concept of illegal immigration. Since the era of the Chinese Exclusion Act, the U.S. government has deported more than 55 million immigrants. Most of these individuals came from Latin-American countries. Similar patterns appeared in other nations, such as Australia with its 1901 Immigration Restriction Act and the United Kingdom with its 1905 Aliens Act. These laws elevated the practice of removing "illegal" immigrants to a global scale.

The United States experienced intense periods of deportation during the 20th century. During the Great Depression in the 1930s, the government ordered stricter enforcement of immigration laws. This led to the deportation or repatriation of between 355,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican Americans. It is estimated that 40 to 60 percent of these people were actually U.S. citizens, many of whom were children. Later, in 1954, the U.S. government launched Operation Wetback. This program was a response to public hysteria regarding immigration and specifically targeted large Mexican communities, such as those in East Los Angeles.