Ctesiphon

Ctesiphon was a massive, influential metropolis located in modern-day Iraq. It sat on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, about 35 kilometers southeast of Baghdad.

For over eight hundred years, the city served as the royal capital for the Iranian empires. It was the heart of the Parthian and Sasanian periods. The city grew into a rich commercial center by merging with nearby settlements. This included the Hellenistic city of Seleucia. Because of this massive growth, people often referred to the area as "The Cities" (al-Mada'in).

As a major hub, Ctesiphon was organized into several distinct districts. The eastern side was known as the "Old City" or Madīnah al-'Atīqah. This area housed the White Palace, which was the residence of the Sasanian rulers. The southern side was called Asbānbar or Aspānbar. This district was famous for its grand halls, baths, stables, and riches. The western side was known as Veh-Ardashir, meaning "the good city of Ardashir." This area was home to many wealthy Jewish residents and the seat of the Nestorian patriarch. Other named districts included Hanbu Shapur, Darzanidan, and Valashabad.

The city was enormous for its time. Ctesiphon measured approximately 30 square kilometers. To understand this scale, consider that it was more than twice the surface area of fourth-century imperial Rome, which was 13.7 square kilometers. By the late 6th and early 7th centuries, some historical accounts listed Ctesiphon as the largest city in the entire world. This vast size made it a primary target during many ancient conflicts. Its wealth and strategic location on the river made it a prize for many invading armies.

Ctesiphon's history began in the late 120s BC. It was originally founded as a military camp by Mithridates I of Parthia. The camp was built directly across from the city of Seleucia. The city reached its peak as a political and commercial center during the reign of Gotarzes I. It officially became the empire's capital around 58 BC under Orodes II. The Romans frequently targeted the city during the Roman–Parthian Wars. The city fell to Roman forces three times during the 2nd century alone. In 197 AD, the emperor Septimius Severus sacked the city and sold thousands of inhabitants into slavery.

In 226 AD, the Sasanian Empire took control and made Ctesiphon their administrative capital. They ruled from the city until the Arab conquest in 637 AD. During this era, the city saw massive expansion. In 541 AD, Khosrow I built a new city near Ctesiphon for people captured during the conquest of Antioch. He named this city Veh-Antiok-Xusrō, which means "better than Antioch Khosrow built this." Some locals called it Rumagan, or the "town of the Romans." This period was marked by both great prosperity and intense warfare with the Byzantine Empire.

In the mid-630s, the Muslim Arabs invaded Sasanian territories. Following the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, they occupied Ctesiphon in early 637 AD. The military officer Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas seized Valashabad and made peace treaties with some districts. When the Muslims arrived, the city was largely desolated because the Sasanian royal family and nobles had fled. However, the Muslim forces seized great riches from the Sasanian treasury. The city's political importance faded rapidly after the founding of Baghdad in the 760s. The Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur even used materials from the ruins of Ctesiphon to build his new capital.

The city was also a diverse center for many different cultures and faiths. The population was a mix of Persians, Greeks, Arameans, and Assyrians. People practiced several religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. The Manichean church also had a significant presence there. Today, the most famous remaining structure is the Taq Kasra, also called the Arch of Ctesiphon.

This massive arch was part of the royal palace. It is estimated to have been built between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD. At least four Sasanian rulers are credited with its construction: Shapur I, Shapur II, Chosrow I, and Chosrow II.