Coup d'état

A coup d'état is an illegal and overt attempt to unseat an existing leader or government. This action is typically carried out by a military organization or other government elites. When a leader reaches power through legal means but then uses illegal methods to remain in power, it is called a self-coup. The term itself is French. It literally translates to a "stroke of state" or a "blow of state." While the concept of seizing power has existed since antiquity, the specific phrase is relatively recent in English. It did not appear in English texts until the 19th century. One early recorded use was in a 1785 translation of a letter from a French merchant. Later, in 1804, the London Morning Chronicle used the term to report on arrests made by Napoleon in France.

There are several distinct types of these political actions. A "soft coup," also known as a silent or bloodless coup, is an illegal overthrow achieved without force or violence. A "palace coup" occurs when one faction within a ruling group displaces another faction within that same group. These are a major threat to dictators and have occurred in places like Imperial China and the Habsburg dynasty in Austria. Another term is "putsch," which comes from the Swiss German word for "knock." This term describes political-military actions by a minority group. In Spanish, a "cuartelazo" refers to a "barracks revolt." This is a type of military mutiny where specific military garrisons spark a larger revolt against the government.

Success in a coup often depends on specific social and psychological factors. Once a coup is underway, its success is driven by the ability of the coup-makers to convince others that the attempt will succeed. Researchers have identified many factors that influence whether a coup occurs. These include economic decline, domestic political crises, and military organizational grievances. Some studies suggest that low income and slow or negative economic growth can predict regime breakdowns. Other factors include ethnic factionalism, the size of the military, and the level of political terror. Even the concentration of force in a small number of units near a capital can increase the likelihood of an attempt.

Governments often try to protect themselves through a process called "coup-proofing." This involves creating structures that make it difficult for any small group to seize power. One strategy is the strategic placement of family, ethnic, or religious groups within the military. Another method is the fragmentation of military and security agencies. By breaking these agencies into smaller, separate parts, a leader makes it harder for them to unite against the state. However, coup-proofing has a significant downside. It often reduces military effectiveness because loyalty is prioritized over experience when filling key positions.

History shows that these events have occurred frequently across the globe. Between 1950 and 2010, there were 457 recorded coup attempts. Of these, 227 were successful, which is approximately 49.7 percent. The remaining 230 attempts were unsuccessful. Most of these attempts happened during the mid-1960s, with other large numbers occurring in the mid-1970s and the early 1990s. Geographically, coups have been most common in Africa and the Americas. Africa accounted for 36.5 percent of total global coups, while the Americas accounted for 31.9 percent. Asia and the Middle East experienced 13.1 percent and 15.8 percent, respectively. Europe has experienced the fewest, at only 2.6 percent.

Certain patterns emerge when looking at the long-term effects of these events. For example, some researchers point to a phenomenon called the "coup trap." This means that the cumulative number of past coups is a strong predictor of future coups. In authoritarian systems, failed coups are likely to actually strengthen the power of the ruler. While many coups perpetuate authoritarianism, the nature of these events has shifted slightly. Coups occurring in the post-Cold War period have been more likely to result in democratic systems than those during the Cold War era. However, the number of successful coups has generally decreased over time.

It is also important to distinguish a coup from a revolution. While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably by political actors, they are different. A coup is usually the result of a conspiracy by a small group. In contrast, a revolution or rebellion is usually started spontaneously by larger, uncoordinated groups of people. Sometimes, plotters will label a coup as a revolution to try and gain democratic legitimacy. Understanding these distinctions helps historians and political scientists track how power changes within a state.