Constans II

Constans II was a major leader of the Byzantine Empire.

He ruled from 641 to 668. His reign occurred during a time of massive change for the Mediterranean world. He faced large-scale invasions from the Rashidun Caliphate. He also managed deep religious conflicts within his own empire. Constans is remembered as the last emperor to serve as a consul. The office of consul was a very old Roman position.

Constans was born in Constantinople on 7 November 630. His father was Constantine III, a son of Emperor Heraclius. His mother was Gregoria, who was related to Heraclius as well. When his father died in 641, Constans was only ten years old. He was first made co-emperor with his half-brother, Heraclonas. However, rumors about the death of their father changed things quickly. A general named Valentinus helped remove Heraclonas from power. This left Constans II as the sole emperor at a very young age. Because he was a child, senators led a regency to help him rule.

Religious disputes were a constant challenge during his reign. Different groups of Christians disagreed on the nature of Jesus Christ. Some followed Monothelitism, while others followed Orthodox views. Constans II tried to find a middle path to stop the fighting. In 648, he issued a decree called the Typos of Constans. This law prohibited any further discussion of these religious natures. He hoped this would create peace, but it satisfied almost no one.

He even had Pope Martin I arrested in 653. The Pope had spoken out against the emperor's religious policies. The Pope was eventually exiled to Cherson, where he died in 655.

External threats also forced Constans to make difficult choices. The Rashidun Caliphate was expanding rapidly during the 640s and 660s. In 642, the Byzantines were forced to withdraw from Egypt entirely. The Arab armies also attacked the islands of the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. One major conflict was the Battle of the Masts in 655. This was a massive naval battle fought off the coast of Lycia.

The Byzantine fleet suffered a devastating defeat. About 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the fighting. Constans II nearly died in the battle. He only escaped by trading his clothes with one of his men.

Constans II also took action to secure his own family line. He became worried that his younger brother, Theodosius, might try to take his throne. To prevent this, he forced Theodosius to join the clergy. Later, Constans had his brother killed in 660. He also worked to involve his own sons in ruling. His sons were named Constantine, Heraclius, and Tiberius. These young men were associated with the throne starting in the 650s.

In his later years, Constans II moved his base of operations. He grew unhappy with the people in Constantinople. He decided to move to Syracuse in Sicily. On his journey, he fought the Slavs in the Balkans. He also campaigned in the east against the Caliphate. In 663, he traveled to Italy to lead military actions. During this trip, he visited Rome for twelve days.

This was a historic moment. He was the first emperor to visit Rome since the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. He was received with honor by Pope Vitalian.

Despite his visit, Constans II's actions in Italy caused anger. He removed bronze and ornaments from buildings, including the Pantheon. He also took tributes from his subjects in Calabria and Sardinia. These actions made many people in Italy very unhappy. His reign also saw the beginning of new ways to organize the military. Some historians believe the first "themes," or military districts, were created during his rule. This would have changed how the empire was managed and defended.

Constans II's influence even reached as far as China. In 643, an embassy from the Byzantine Empire was sent to the Tang Dynasty.

This embassy reached Emperor Taizong in the city of Chang'an. The Byzantines brought gifts like green gemstones and red glass. This shows that even during times of war, trade and diplomacy continued across long distances. Constans II died on 15 July 668. He was assassinated in his bath by his chamberlain. His son, Constantine IV, became the next emperor.