Commedia dell'arte

Commedia dell'arte was a professional form of theatre that flourished throughout Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It originated in Italy and was known for its highly recognizable characters and improvised performances.

Unlike earlier styles of comedy, commedia dell'arte relied on masked "types." These were standardized archetypical characters that audiences recognized by specific names, costumes, and social functions. This art form was not just about acting; it was a professional system involving traveling companies, specific performance structures, and the rise of the first professional female actresses in Europe.

The mechanism of a commedia dell'arte performance relied on a balance between structure and spontaneity. Actors did not work from a full, word-for-word script. Instead, they used a scenario, which was a written outline of the plot. This scenario dictated key plot points and the specific moments when characters entered or exited the stage.

Within this framework, actors were expected to improvise much of the dialogue and action. A vital part of this was the lazzo, a rehearsed or spontaneous joke or witty routine used to entertain the crowd. Some characters, such as Arlecchino, also utilized pantomime, which is a form of acting using mostly body movements rather than speech.

Characters in commedia dell'arte represented fixed social types, often referred to as stock characters. These roles were exaggerated versions of real people found in society. For example, il Dottore was a know-it-all doctor, while Pantalone was a greedy old man.

Other types included devious servants, military officers with false bravado, and lovers. The Zanni were a specific group of servant characters. Troupes often maintained a "usual ten" lineup, which included two Zanni, two lovers, a captain, a serving maid, and other roles to ensure a balanced ensemble.

The history of this theatre is complex, with some scholars looking for ancient roots. Some suggest connections to the Atellan Farces of the Roman middle republic, which used masks and improvised plots. Others link the tradition to medieval jongleurs or moralities.

A likely origin point is the Carnival in Venice. By 1570, the actor Andrea Calmo had created Il Magnifico, a character that eventually evolved into Pantalone. While it is uncertain exactly when masks became a standard requirement, the connection to the masked traditions of Carnival suggests they were central to the form's development.

Professionalism in commedia dell'arte led to significant social changes, particularly for women. By the 1560s, women were playing female roles, making them the first professional actresses in Europe since antiquity.

Records show Lucrezia Di Siena was an actress by 1564. Other women, such as Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia, became well-documented primadonnas. Despite this progress, the rise of actresses faced opposition from the church and critics. Some religious leaders argued that female performers were improper, yet actresses remained a standard part of the Italian stage by the end of the 16th century.

Many famous troupes, or compagnie, traveled across Europe to perform. The Gelosi were a particularly notable company, active by 1568. They adopted the two-faced Roman god Janus as their symbol to represent both the traveling nature of the troupe and the dual identity of the actor.

Other groups included the Confidenti, Desioi, and Fedeli troupes. These performers were true professionals who often came from various backgrounds, such as being soldiers or priests, before joining the theatre. They performed in diverse settings, from outdoor town squares called piazzas to the private halls of royal courts.

Commedia dell'arte left a lasting legacy on global culture. In France, the style influenced the great playwright Molière and the development of the Comédie-Italienne.

The Neapolitan character Pulcinella eventually influenced the English Punch and Judy puppet shows. In Italy, the masks and plots of commedia dell'arte were integrated into opera buffa, influencing composers like Rossini, Verdi, and Puccini. Even the political history of Italy was touched by the form, as citizens used Carnival masks during the Napoleonic occupation to hide their identities while criticizing the regime. This led Napoleon to outlaw the form in 1797 to prevent it from being used as a political platform.