Buddhist monasticism

Buddhist monasticism is one of the oldest forms of organized communal living in the world.

It serves as a fundamental institution within the Buddhist faith. This system is composed of monks, known as bhikkhus, and nuns, known as bhikkhunis. Together, these individuals form a community called the sangha. The primary responsibility of the sangha is to preserve and spread the teachings of the Buddha. They also serve as guides for the lay community, which consists of people who do not live a monastic life. Through their lifestyle, monastics act as a "field of merit." This means that lay followers can earn spiritual merit by providing support and gifts to the monks and nuns.

The relationship between the sangha and the lay community is based on mutual support. Monastics are expected to live an austere life focused on meditation and the study of doctrine. They typically live with very few possessions. Instead, they rely on the lay community for essential items like food and clothing. This lifestyle is not necessarily isolated or lonely. In the beginning, small groups of monks often traveled together. They might live on the outskirts of local towns or practice meditation in forests. Over time, these traveling groups developed into settled communities. The practice of living together during the rainy season, known as the vassa, helped transition the movement into a more permanent, cenobitic lifestyle.

There are different types of living arrangements for these communities. The Vinaya, which is the code of monastic discipline, describes two main styles. The first is a temporary house called a vihara. In a vihara, several monks might stay in one building, but each monk has his own individual cell called a parivena. The second type is a more permanent and comfortable arrangement known as an arama. An arama is often a pleasant park or an orchard. These were generally donated and maintained by wealthy citizens. One famous example is Anathapindika's arama, which featured buildings worth 1.8 million gold pieces. This entire gift was valued at 5.4 million gold pieces.

The history of this tradition reaches back to the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha founded the order during his lifetime. He began by accepting a group of fellow renunciants as his followers. This lifestyle grew out of earlier groups of wandering ascetics. After the Buddha's death, the monastic order grew significantly. Large monastic universities eventually appeared in northern India, housing thousands of resident monks. While monasticism eventually declined in India, it spread across Asia. It became a pan-Asian phenomenon with large communities in East and Southeast Asia. Today, due to global interest and migration, monasteries also exist in Europe, Australia, Africa, and the Americas.

Because there is no single central authority in Buddhism, different regional traditions have developed. These traditions follow different versions of the Vinaya, or monastic rules. There are three main surviving traditions today. The Theravada tradition is found in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. The Dharmaguptaka tradition is practiced in East Asia. The Mulasarvastivada tradition is used in Tibet and the Himalayan region. These traditions differ in their specific rules. For instance, Theravada monks follow about 258 rules. Mulasarvastivada nuns follow 354 rules. These rules, called the Pratimokṣa, govern everything from behavior and dress to social decorum.

Entering the monastic life is traditionally a two-stage process. First, an individual ordains as a novice, called a samanera or samanerika. They live in the monastery to learn the ways of the community. During this stage, they follow the Ten Precepts but are not bound by the full set of monastic rules. After this, they can undergo higher ordination, known as upasampada. This confers full monastic status and much heavier obligations. The age for starting varies by tradition. In the Theravada tradition, boys may start as young as age eight. In East Asian traditions, formal novice ordination usually happens at age nineteen. Women typically ordain as adults and must often serve as novices for five years before higher ordination.

Several core disciplines define the life of a monastic. One universal rule across all traditions is celibacy, or brahmacariya. This means monastics renounce sex, marriage, and reproduction to separate their lives from householders. Another aspect is diet. While vegetarianism is encouraged and considered ideal, it is not always mandatory. The Vinaya allows monks and nuns to eat meat if it is provided through donations. Finally, the community has a sense of hierarchy. While not all schools require absolute obedience to a superior, monastics are expected to show great respect to senior members of the sangha. This respect is often based on how many rainy season retreats a monk has completed.