Antimicrobial

Some things kill tiny germs.

They can also stop germs from growing. This helps keep us from getting sick.

People have used plants to fight germs for a long time. Some medicines fight bacteria. Other medicines fight fungi.

Doctors use them to treat infections.

Some things clean tools used in surgery. Others clean surfaces like tables. These help stop the spread of germs.

Using these medicines too much can be a problem. It can make some germs very strong. This makes the medicines stop working.

Scientists are still looking for new ways to help. They want to find new ways to stay healthy.

An antimicrobial is something that kills tiny germs. It can also stop them from growing. These agents are used in many ways. Some are used to treat infections. Others are used to prevent them.

There are different types of antimicrobials. Antibiotics fight bacteria. Antifungals fight fungi. Antivirals fight viruses. Antiparasitics fight parasites. Some medicines work on many types of germs at once. These are called broad-spectrum therapeutics.

People have used these tools for a long time. Ancient Egyptians used plant extracts. In 1928, Alexander Fleming found penicillin. This was a famous antibiotic. Later, Selman Waksman won a prize for his work. He helped develop 22 different antibiotics.

We use these tools on living things and objects. Antiseptics are used on skin during surgery. Disinfectants like bleach clean surfaces. Some metals, like copper, can also kill germs on contact.

Using these drugs too much can be bad. It can make germs very strong. This is called resistance. When germs become resistant, the medicines do not work well. This is a big threat to health.

An antimicrobial is a special agent that fights tiny germs. Some antimicrobials act as microbicides, which means they kill microorganisms. Other types are called bacteriostatic agents, which stop germs from growing. We can group these medicines by what they treat. Antibiotics fight bacteria, while antifungals target fungi. There are also antivirals for viruses and antiparasitics for parasites. Some medicines are broad-spectrum, meaning they work against many different types of germs at once.

These tools work in many different ways. Disinfectants like bleach kill germs on surfaces to stop illness from spreading. Antiseptics are applied to living tissue, like skin, during surgery. Antibiotics work inside the body to destroy microorganisms. Some new technologies use porous media to kill microbes on contact. Even some metals can help. For example, copper surfaces have natural properties that kill germs like E. coli. The US Environmental Protection Agency even approved copper alloys for use in hospitals and subways.

People have used antimicrobials for a very long time. Ancient Egyptians and Greeks used plant extracts and molds to treat infections. In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur studied how bacteria interact. His work helped Joseph Lister use antiseptic methods in surgery. This helped reduce deaths from infections after operations. On September 3, 1928, Alexander Fleming made a huge discovery. He found that a fungus called Penicillium rubens stopped bacteria from growing in a Petri dish. This led to the use of penicillin.

Many scientists helped build our knowledge of these medicines. In 1942, Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, and Edward Abraham purified penicillin. They won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945 for this work. Another scientist, Selman Waksman, also won a Nobel Prize. He developed 22 different antibiotics, including one called Streptomycin.

The antibiotic era really took off with sulfonamide drugs in 1936. A "golden" period of discovery followed from 1945 to 1970. During this time, many effective new medicines were found.

We must be careful how we use these tools. Using antimicrobials too much in humans, animals, or plants is a problem. This misuse leads to antimicrobial resistance, or AMR. This happens when germs become strong enough to survive the medicine. In 2019, AMR was linked to 1.27 million deaths globally. It also contributed to 4.95 million other deaths. Because of this, scientists are searching for new ways to find bioactive compounds. They want to find new medicines to fight these resistant germs.

An antimicrobial is any agent that manages microorganisms. These agents function in two primary ways. A microbicide kills the microorganisms directly. A bacteriostatic agent stops the microorganisms from growing. Scientists group these medicines by the specific microbes they target. For example, antibiotics are used for bacteria. Antifungals are used for fungi. Antivirals treat viral infections. Antiparasitics are used for diseases caused by parasites. Some treatments are considered broad-spectrum because they are active against multiple classes of pathogens at once.

Antimicrobials are also classified by their intended function and application. Disinfectants are non-selective agents like bleach. They kill a wide range of microbes on surfaces to prevent illness. Antiseptics are applied to living tissue. These help reduce infection during surgical procedures. Antibiotics are used to destroy microorganisms inside the human body. While the term antibiotic once only described substances from living organisms, it now includes synthetic agents like sulfonamides or fluoroquinolones. Modern technology has even created porous media that kill microbes on contact.

Different classes of drugs target specific biological structures. Antibacterials are classified as beta-lactams, macrolides, quinolones, tetracyclines, or aminoglycosides. This classification depends on their chemical composition and pharmacodynamics. Antifungals exploit differences between mammalian and fungal cells. Because both humans and fungi are eukaryotes, their cells are similar at the molecular level. This makes it harder to find a target that does not harm the host. Consequently, antifungals can cause life-threatening side effects if used improperly. Antivirals are distinct from viricides, which deactivate virus particles outside the body. Some antivirals, like protease inhibitors, treat retroviruses such as HIV. Others, like acyclovir, treat herpes viruses.

Humanity has used antimicrobials for at least 2,000 years. Ancient Egyptians and Greeks used plant extracts and molds to treat infections. In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur observed antagonism between different bacteria. His work on fermentation helped distinguish between anaerobic and aerobic bacteria. This knowledge allowed Joseph Lister to implement antiseptic methods. Lister sterilized surgical tools and debrided wounds. These techniques drastically reduced deaths from surgical infections. Pasteur's microbiology also led to vaccines for rabies and anthrax.

On September 3, 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. He noticed a fungus called Penicillium rubens separated bacteria colonies in a Petri dish. In 1942, Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, and Edward Abraham purified penicillin for medicine. They earned the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945. The antibiotic era began with sulfonamide drugs in 1936. A "golden" period of discovery followed from 1945 to 1970. During this time, many diverse and effective agents were developed. Selman Waksman also won a Nobel Prize for developing 22 antibiotics, including Streptomycin.

There are significant concerns regarding the misuse of these agents. Using antimicrobials too much in humans, animals, and plants drives antimicrobial resistance, or AMR. This happens when pathogens develop the ability to survive the drugs. AMR was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019. It also contributed to 4.95 million deaths. Since 1980, the introduction of new clinical antimicrobials has declined. This is partly due to the enormous expense of drug development. Physicians often misuse antibacterials for viral respiratory infections, which does not help.

Scientists are looking for new ways to combat resistant pathogens. One strategy involves using metagenomics to find compounds in unknown microorganisms. Another method is developing small-molecule libraries for specific bacterial targets. Non-pharmaceutical antimicrobials are also used. Organic acids like citric or acetic acid are used in food products. For instance, beef carcasses are sprayed with acids to reduce E. coli. Copper is another natural antimicrobial. Copper-alloy surfaces can kill E. coli and Staphylococcus. The EPA has approved these surfaces for use in subways and healthcare facilities.