Social research

People study how we live together.

They use a plan to learn new things. Some look at many people at once. This helps them find patterns. Others talk to just a few people. They watch how people act. This helps them understand stories.

They use ideas and facts to learn. It is a slow and hard job. This work helps us know our world better.

Social scientists study how people live together. They use a plan to find facts. This is called social research. There are two main ways to do this.

One way is called quantitative research. This uses numbers and math. It looks at many cases to find patterns. Another way is called qualitative research. This focuses on stories and watching people. It helps us understand why things happen. Many researchers use both ways together.

Émile Durkheim was a famous social scientist.

Sometimes, a group of people is too big to study. Scientists use a sample instead. A sample is a small part of a large group. This makes the work faster and cheaper. It helps them learn about the whole group.

Researchers must also be fair. They follow rules to keep people safe. They must respect people and make sure no one is hurt. This is called ethics. Good research can help the real world. It can help us understand how to make things better for everyone.

Social research is a way to study how people live and act together. Social scientists use a systematic plan to find real facts about our world. They want to explore, describe, and explain how society works. They also try to predict what might happen in the future. This work is different from just having a belief or a philosophy. It is based on logic and things that can be observed. Researchers use evidence to test their ideas and see if they are true.

There are two main ways to do this kind of work. The first way is called quantitative research. This method uses numbers and math to find patterns. It often looks at many cases to make general claims. The second way is called qualitative research. This method focuses on understanding people through watching them or talking to them. It looks closely at specific stories and settings. Many scientists use both ways together in a plan called triangulation.

Sometimes, a group of people is too huge to study every single person. This is why scientists use something called a sample. A sample is a smaller group taken from a much larger population. Using a sample is much faster and cheaper than a full census. Scientists use different ways to pick these groups. Some ways are random, while others are not. They use the information from the small group to learn about the whole population.

Social research has a long history. Some people trace surveys back to the Domesday Book in 1086. Others look to John Graunt in 1663 for early work in demography. However, formal social research really began in the early 19th century. This was part of a way of thinking called positivism. A very important person in this field was Émile Durkheim. He lived from 1858 to 1917. He helped make sociology a real academic study.

Researchers must follow strict rules called ethics to stay fair. In the United States, these rules come from the Belmont report. One rule is respect for persons, which means letting people make their own choices. Another rule is beneficence, which means protecting people from harm. The final rule is justice, which means sharing the benefits of research fairly. Good research should also allow for surprises. Scientists should not ignore facts just because they do not fit their ideas.

Social research is the systematic study of human society and social patterns. Social scientists follow specific plans to explore, describe, explain, and predict social phenomena. This work is distinct from philosophy or personal belief. Instead, it relies on logic and empirical observations. Empirical observations are things that have been seen, heard, or experienced. Researchers use these observations to interact with their ideas. They use evidence to extend, revise, or test their theories. This process helps create a deeper understanding of how social groups function.

Researchers generally use two primary methodologies: quantitative and qualitative designs. Quantitative research approaches social phenomena through quantifiable evidence. This method often relies on statistical analyses of many cases. Scientists may use intentionally designed treatments in an experiment to create reliable claims. In contrast, qualitative designs emphasize understanding through direct observation or communication. This might involve analyzing texts or talking with participants. Qualitative work often stresses contextual, subjective accuracy over broad generality. However, the relationship between these two is complex. Many studies use both methods together in a process called triangulation.

Because populations are often too large to study entirely, researchers use sampling. A census is a complete enumeration of every value in a population. Since a census is often infeasible, a sample serves as a manageable subset. In positivist research, statistics from a sample help draw inferences about the whole population. There are several ways to select these subsets. Random sampling methods include systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Non-random or non-probability methods include convenience, purposive, and snowball sampling. Sampling is a vital tool because it is quicker and cheaper than a full census.

Social research is built upon a specific hierarchy of scientific concepts. Concepts serve as the basic building blocks of a theory. These are abstract elements that represent classes of phenomena. Researchers use axioms, or postulates, which are assertions assumed to be true. From these, they derive propositions about the relationships between concepts. These propositions lead to hypotheses, which are specific expectations about reality. The goal is to test these hypotheses through operationalization. Operationalization is the process of measuring variables to see if relationships exist.

Variables are a central part of how social theories are written. A variable is a logical set of attributes. People act as the carriers of these variables. For example, gender is a variable with attributes like male, female, or non-binary. Scientists also distinguish between independent and dependent variables. An independent variable is the data that influences a change. The dependent variable is the factor that scientists are trying to explain. For instance, in a medical study, the dosage of a drug is the independent variable. The severity of the symptoms is the dependent variable.

The history of social research includes several important milestones. Some scholars trace the origins of surveys to the Domesday Book in 1086. Others point to 1663, when John Graunt published work on the Bills of Mortality. This work helped establish the field of demography. However, intentional social research grew from positivism in the early 19th century. Émile Durkheim, who lived from 1858 to 1917, was a key figure. He helped establish sociology as a formal academic discipline. He believed social sciences could maintain the same objectivity and rationalism as natural sciences.

To ensure quality, researchers follow specific guidelines for "good research." Glenn Firebaugh outlined several rules for this process. One rule is that research should allow for the possibility of surprise. Scientists must not ignore contrary evidence just to protect their preconceived ideas. They should also look for "differences that make a difference." Other rules include replicating studies to see if results remain similar across different samples. Researchers should also compare "like with like" and study change over time. Finally, method should be the servant, not the master, of the research design.

Finally, social research must follow strict ethical principles. In the United States, the Belmont report formalizes these rules. The first is respect for persons, which requires informed consent. This recognizes that individuals are autonomous agents capable of making decisions. The second is beneficence, which requires protecting subjects from harm. This principle also states that research must bring tangible benefits to society. The third is justice, which ensures the benefits of research are distributed fairly. Fairness can be defined by equal shares, individual need, or even societal contribution.