Government debt

Sometimes a country needs more money.

It can borrow money to help. This is called debt. Governments borrow to pay for things like roads.

This helps when times are very hard. For example, it helps during a big sickness. It can also help during a war. The money must be paid back later. This helps keep the country running well.

It is a way to help people.

A country's debt is money it owes. Governments often borrow money to pay for things. This happens when they spend more than they earn. This gap between spending and earning is called a deficit.

Borrowing can help a country during hard times. For example, it helps during a war or a sickness. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused debt to rise. This helped many nations during the recession.

Debt can also help a nation grow. It can pay for new roads or buildings. In the past, debt helped build modern economies. The Bank of England was founded in 1694 to manage money. This helped the British government pay its debts.

However, too much debt can be a problem. If debt gets too high, it may slow growth. A country might even face a debt crisis. This is when a nation cannot pay what it owes. To stay safe, many countries have rules to limit debt.

Government debt is the money a government owes to others. This is often called public debt or sovereign debt. A government creates debt when it has a deficit. A deficit happens when a country spends more money than it earns from taxes. This borrowed money can come from people living in the same country. It can also come from people or groups in other countries. If the money is owed to foreigners, it is part of the country's external debt. Governments use these funds to pay for important things. They might build roads or invest in long-term projects.

Borrowing money can act like a shock absorber for a nation. This helps when a country faces a sudden hard time. For example, debt can help during a major war. It also helps during a public health emergency like the COVID-19 recession. During these times, tax money often goes down while spending goes up. Without borrowing, a government might have to raise taxes very quickly. They might also have to cut important services like healthcare.

Using debt can help a country stay stable during these crises. It allows the government to keep working even when the economy is struggling.

History shows that the ability to borrow has helped build strong nations. People have used public borrowing for a very long time. Records show Greek city-states like Syracuse borrowed money 2,000 years ago. In the 1600s and 1700s, England changed how it handled money. They created a parliament that included the people who lent money. This made lenders feel safer because they knew the government had to follow rules.

The founding of the Bank of England in 1694 was a huge change. It helped the British government avoid failing to pay its debts. This helped lead to modern economic growth and new financial markets.

Debt levels can change a lot depending on the year and place. In 2020, global government debt reached US$87.4 trillion. This was about 99% of the world's gross domestic product, or GDP. GDP is the total value of all goods and services a country makes. In 1900, France had the most total debt at over 1 billion pounds. In 1815, British debt reached a peak of over 200% of its GDP.

Today, many countries use the debt-to-GDP ratio to see if their debt is safe. This ratio helps people compare countries of different sizes fairly.

Having too much debt can lead to serious problems for a country. If debt gets too high, it might slow down economic growth. Some evidence shows that very high debt can make growth rates lower. A country might even face a debt crisis. This happens when a nation cannot pay what it owes.

To prevent this, many nations have special rules. Germany and Switzerland use something called a "debt brake." The European Union also has an agreement to keep debt below 60% of GDP. These rules help keep the country's finances healthy for the future.

Government debt, also called public or sovereign debt, represents the total financial liabilities of a government. This debt grows when a government experiences a deficit. A deficit occurs when a country's expenditures exceed its revenues. Governments can borrow money from domestic residents or foreign residents. When debt is owed to people in other countries, it is categorized as external debt.

To understand how this works, we must look at debt instruments. These are financial claims that require a debtor to pay interest or principal to a creditor later. Common examples include loans, debt securities like bonds or bills, and even government employee pension obligations. Governments often use debt to conduct fiscal policy. This allows them to avoid immediate tax increases or make long-term investments. By borrowing, they can fund projects that offer future returns.

There are different ways to measure these obligations. Gross debt is the total of all debt instruments. An alternative is net debt, which is gross debt minus financial assets. International comparisons often focus on the general government sector. This includes central, state, provincial, local governments, and social security funds. It does not include the debt of public corporations, such as post offices.

A key indicator of a country's debt burden is the debt-to-GDP ratio. GDP, or Gross Domestic Product, is the total value of goods and services produced in an economy. This ratio allows people to compare debt levels across different sized countries. The OECD uses this ratio to judge if government finances are sustainable. Another important concept is off-balance-sheet liabilities. These include unfunded mandates, like pension obligations, and contingent liabilities, like natural disaster relief spending.

History shows that borrowing has helped build modern states. Records show Greek city-states like Syracuse borrowed from citizens 2,000 years ago. In the 17th and 18th centuries, England created a parliament that included creditors. This improved England's ability to borrow because lenders trusted democratic institutions. The founding of the Bank of England in 1694 was a major turning point.

This helped the British government avoid the kind of defaults seen in 1672. Over time, public debt helped create private financial markets and economic growth.

Debt levels have shifted dramatically through history. In 1815, British debt reached over 200% of its GDP. By 1900, France held the most total debt at over 1 billion pounds. In 2020, global government debt reached US$87.4 trillion. This was 99% of the global GDP. This massive rise was caused by stimulus measures during the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic.

While borrowing can act as an economic shock absorber, too much debt can be risky. High debt can lead to rising interest rates. This might "crowd out" private investment as governments compete for funds. A World Bank report found that very high debt-to-GDP ratios can reduce future economic growth. If debt becomes too high, a country might face a debt crisis. This is when a nation cannot make its payments and cannot borrow more. To prevent this, many countries use rules like Germany's "debt brake" or the EU's 60% GDP limit.