Genetic engineering

People can change tiny parts inside living things.

They can add new parts or take parts away. This helps make better food for us to eat. It can also help make medicine to keep us well.

Some food stays fresh for a longer time.

Other plants are made to fight off bugs. This can help farmers grow more crops.

Scientists even made a tiny fish that glows!

This shows how many ways we can use it. It is a very big tool for science.

Genetic engineering is a way to change an organism's DNA. DNA is the code that tells a living thing how to grow.

Scientists use technology to add or remove these tiny parts. They can also change parts that are already there. This is much faster than old ways of breeding plants and animals.

In 1972, Paul Berg made the first recombinant DNA. This means he joined DNA from two different viruses together.

This work helps make many useful things. Scientists use it to make human insulin for medicine. It also helps make vaccines to stop sickness. Some crops are changed to fight off bugs or stay fresh longer.

For example, the Flavr Savr tomato was made to last longer. In 2003, people even sold GloFish as pets. These fish were made to glow in bright colors.

Some people have worries about this work. They wonder if GM food is safe to eat. They also worry about how it affects nature. Because of this, many countries have rules to keep it safe.

These rules help people study how genes work.

Genetic engineering is a way to change the genetic makeup of a living thing. Scientists use special tools to add, remove, or change DNA. DNA is the code that tells a cell how to work. This method is much faster than old ways of breeding. In traditional breeding, people cross plants or animals many times to get a result. Genetic engineering can take a single gene from one organism and put it into another.

This can create new or improved living things. We call these genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. If a gene comes from a different species, the organism is called transgenic. If the gene is from the same species, it is called cisgenic.

How does this work step by step? First, scientists must get the new DNA they want to use. They can do this by copying genetic material or by making it from scratch. This new piece of DNA is often called a construct. Next, the scientists must put this DNA into a host organism. They might use a method called micro-injection to put it into a cell. They can also use a vector system to carry the DNA inside.

Sometimes, they can even use a gene gun to shoot DNA into cells. This process can add new traits or even "knock out" a gene to remove it.

This science has a very interesting history. In 1972, Paul Berg designed the first recombinant DNA molecule. He combined DNA from a monkey virus with a lambda virus. In 1973, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism. They did this by putting genes into an E. coli bacterium. Later, in 1974, Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal. He did this by putting foreign DNA into a mouse.

In 1976, the first company for this work, Genentech, was started. By 1978, they successfully produced human insulin using this technology.

There are many real-world uses for these tools today. In 1982, insulin-producing bacteria were sold for medical use. In 1994, the first GM food, the Flavr Savr tomato, was sold. This tomato was made to stay fresh for a longer time. Most modern GM crops are made to resist insects or herbicides. In 2003, people could even buy GloFish as pets. In 2016, scientists sold salmon that had been modified with a growth hormone.

These tools also help make mRNA vaccines to prevent infections like COVID-19. They even help make enzymes for laundry detergent and cheese.

Even though this science is helpful, it can be a hard job to manage. Some people worry about the safety of GM food. They also worry about how it might affect other living things in nature. Because of these concerns, many countries have rules to keep things safe. A group of rules called the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in 2000. Different countries have different rules, especially the United States and Europe. These rules help scientists study gene function while keeping people safe. This work helps us understand the very building blocks of life.

Genetic engineering is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells. Scientists use these tools to modify, manipulate, or even remove an organism's genes. This process can involve transferring genes within a single species or across different species boundaries. The goal is often to produce improved or novel organisms with specific traits. This is very different from traditional breeding. In traditional breeding, people perform many crosses to select for a desired phenotype, or physical trait. Genetic engineering is much faster because it takes a specific gene directly from one organism and delivers it to another.

To begin the process, scientists must obtain new DNA. They do this by isolating and copying genetic material using recombinant DNA methods. They can also use artificial synthesis to create DNA from scratch. Once the DNA is ready, it is often organized into a construct. This construct is then used to insert the new material into a host organism. Scientists may use a vector system to carry the DNA inside. Other methods include micro-injection, macro-injection, or micro-encapsulation. In some cases, a gene gun is used to shoot DNA into cells.

There are several ways to classify the resulting organisms. An organism created this way is a genetically modified organism, or GMO. If the new DNA comes from a different species, the organism is called transgenic. If the DNA comes from the same species or one that can naturally breed with the host, it is called cisgenic.

Scientists can also use these tools to remove genes. This process is known as a "knockout," and the resulting entity is a knockout organism.

These different methods allow for precise control over the genetic structure of the host.

The history of this field began in the early 1970s. In 1972, Paul Berg designed the first recombinant DNA molecule. He combined DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. In 1973, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism. They inserted antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium. In 1974, Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal by inserting foreign DNA into a mouse.

By 1976, the first company focused on this work, Genentech, was founded. In 1978, Genentech successfully produced genetically engineered human insulin.

Genetic engineering has many important applications in medicine and industry. In 1982, insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized for medical use. This technology is also used to create vaccines, such as mRNA vaccines for COVID-19. In industrial biotechnology, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are used for various processes. Scientists even use these techniques to produce enzymes for laundry detergent and cheese. In research, GMOs help scientists study gene function through experiments like loss-of-function or gain-of-function. By knocking out certain genes, researchers can create animal models to study human diseases.

Agriculture has also been transformed by these technologies. The first genetically modified food was the Flavr Savr tomato, sold in 1994. This tomato was engineered to have a longer shelf life. Today, most GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. For example, the Bt potato was approved as a pesticide-producing crop in the US in 1995.

In 2009, transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 different countries. Some of the largest areas of growth were in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and China. Even pets have been modified, such as the GloFish sold in 2003.

Despite these benefits, the technology has faced significant controversy. Some people worry about food safety, gene flow, and the impact on non-target organisms. There are also concerns regarding the control of the food supply and intellectual property rights. These concerns led to the creation of a regulatory framework starting in 1975. In 2000, the international community officially adopted the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. While there is a scientific consensus that GMO foods are safe, individual countries have very different rules. For instance, there are marked differences between the regulatory systems in the United States and Europe.